Each year, nearly two million women[1] are released from prison or jail.[2] These women experience unique challenges during their reentry[3] — the period of transition from correctional confinement to the community[4] — but correctional programming to support successful reintegration has largely focused on men.[5] Despite evidence that findings from men’s reentry programs may not be generalizable to women,[6] there has not been a commensurate investment in research, development, implementation, or evaluation of programs that integrate gender-specific factors in their designs.
Here are five things we know about women and reentry based on available data and research.
Although the number of females under correctional supervision fell 25% between 2011 and 2021, nearly one million women remained in prison, jail, or on probation or parole as of December 31, 2021, a rate of 720 per 100,000.[7] This included 85,100 women held in local jails — a 22% increase from 2020. While women make up nearly 18% of the correctional supervision population,[8] national-level data on their characteristics is scant, restricting the ability to discern sex by race, ethnicity, age group, offense type, or conviction status. Available national data indicate that Black, Hispanic, and American Indian/ Alaskan Native women experience higher rates of imprisonment than white women.[9] but the degree to which this over-representation is mirrored in community supervision populations remains unclear. One consistent finding for this population is that many women who have experienced incarceration are mothers. Past estimates indicate that 58% of women in prison[10] and 80% of women in jail[11] have minor children, with two children on average.[12]
Females follow unique pathways into the criminal justice system compared to males.[13] Researchers have documented differences in family histories of dysfunction, substance use, co-occurring disorders, and victimization, all of which are associated with criminal justice involvement.[14] Histories of sexual abuse and trauma are especially overrepresented in the female incarcerated population.[15] Most reentry programs available for women have been designed for men and do not address the distinct trajectories of how women become involved in the criminal justice system.[16]
Women reentering communities from incarceration can experience the associated hardships differently than men, as they are more likely to be victimized and economically disadvantaged, suffer from mental illness or co-occurring disorders, use drugs regularly, be a parent to an underage child, or face any combination of these challenges.[17] All of these factors likely impact the odds of reoffending.
Gender-responsive programming is based on an assessment of risks and needs that includes gender-specific factors and incorporates treatment targets, such as those focused on mental health, substance use, or familial relationships.[18] Gender-responsive interventions that include mental health components, treatment for trauma, childcare, and parenting classes are associated with reduced recidivism and increased treatment retention following release.[19] Female-specific programming that incorporates cognitive behavioral therapy, mutual or peer support, or all-female group sessions is recommended for women experiencing reentry.[20] Despite these findings, research evaluating gender-responsive programs is relatively limited. Researchers need to develop and evaluate more of these programs to better understand how to ensure successful reentry for women. See “Women’s Reentry Programs Rated Promising on CrimeSolutions” (below) for a summary of reentry programs designed for justice-involved females currently rated promising on CrimeSolutions.[21]
Because justice-involved women are more likely to experience substance use, mental health, and co-occurring disorders, treatment before and during reentry is especially beneficial.[22] Analyses of substance abuse treatment programs for women have found that those that are gender-responsive, use individualized case management, target co-occurring mental health and substance use disorders, or are transitional programs are most effective at reducing recidivism and substance use.[23] Research suggests that reentry programs can increase women’s access to post-release mental health or substance use disorder treatment services, ideally through implementation of a reentry plan developed prior to release.[24] These services also play an important role in substance use-related reentry outcomes for women, including return to treatment, continuity of care, and post-release abstinence from drugs and alcohol.[25]
Some preliminary studies suggest that culturally responsive programs — those that consider race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and other identities — may be more effective than traditional programming in reducing recidivism and improving program engagement.[26] Accordingly, gender-responsive reentry programming may be improved by also using culturally responsive strategies that consider client characteristics and intersecting identities. However, more rigorous research is needed.
| Program | Description |
|---|---|
| Forever Free | The first comprehensive, in-prison, residential substance use disorder treatment program designed for incarcerated women. In one quasi-experimental study, the intervention group reported fewer arrests during parole, less drug use, and more employment at follow-up than the comparison group. |
| Gender-Specific Drug Treatment Court | A drug court program that provides treatment services to women on probation to reduce their risk of reoffending. The program gives preference to women who have higher need and risk profiles, are mothers, and have substance use problems. In one quasi-experimental study, women in the treatment group were statistically significantly less likely to have a new conviction after two years when compared with a control group. |
| Moving On | A curriculum-based, gender-responsive intervention addressing incarcerated women’s different cognitive-behavioral needs. Based on one quasi-experimental study, the program significantly reduced recidivism (as measured by rearrests and reconvictions), but it did not significantly affect reincarcerations for a new offense or technical violation revocations. |
| “Seeking Safety” for Incarcerated Women | A cognitive-behavioral intervention for incarcerated women with co-occurring post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance use disorders. In one quasi-experimental study, results suggest it significantly reduced PTSD and depression scores in program participants. |
[note 1] For the purposes of this article, sex refers to sex at birth rather than gender identity and may reference both adults and juveniles, depending on the population under study. Generally, the research presented here focuses on women, but some samples include girls under age 18.
[note 2] Sawyer, Wendy. "Who’s Helping the 1.9 Million Women Released from Prisons and Jails Each Year?" Northampton, MA: Prison Policy Initiative, 2019.
[note 3] Cobbina, Jennifer E. “Reintegration Success and Failure: Factors Impacting Reintegration Among Incarcerated and Formerly Incarcerated Women.” Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 49, no. 3(2010): 210-232. https://doi.org/10.1080/10509671003666602; La Vigne, Nancy G, Lisa E. Brooks, and Tracey L. Shollenberger. "Women on the Outside: Understanding the Experiences of Female Prisoners Returning to Houston, Texas." Washington, DC: The Urban Institute, Justice Policy Center, 2009. https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/30401/411902-Women-on-the-Outside-Understanding-the-Experiences-of-Female-Prisoners-Returning-to-Houston-Texas.PDF; Visher, Christy A. and Nicholas W. Bakken. “Reentry Challenges Facing Women with Mental Health Problems.” Women & Health 54 no. 8 (2014), 768-780. https://doi.org/10.1080/03630242.2014.932889.
[note 4] National Institute of Justice, “Five Things About Reentry.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 2023. https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/five-things-about-reentry.
[note 5] Blanchette, Kelley, and Shelley L. Brown. The Assessment and Treatment of Women Offenders: An Integrative Perspective. (Boston, MA: John Wiley & Sons, 2006); Haywood, Thomas W., Howard M. Kravitz, Laurie B. Goldman, and Anderson Freeman. "Characteristics of Women in Jail and Treatment Orientations: A Review." Behavior Modification 24, no. 3 (2000): 307-324. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445500243001.
[note 6] Blanchette and Brown, The Assessment and Treatment of Women Offenders; Bloom, Barbara, Barbara Owen, and Stephanie Covington. "Women Offenders and the Gendered Effects of Public Policy." Review of Policy Research 21, no. 1 (2004): 31-48. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-1338.2004.00056.x; Haywood, Kravitz, Goldman, and Freeman, “Characteristics of Women in Jail.”
[note 7] Carson, E. Ann and Rich Kluckow. “Correctional Populations in the United States, 2021 – Statistical Tables.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2023.
[note 8] Carson and Kluckow, “Correctional Populations in the United States, 2021.”
[note 9] Carson, E. Ann. “Prisoners in 2021 – Statistical Tables.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2022. https://bjs.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/ xyckuh236/files/media/document/p21st.pdf.
[note 10] Glaze, Lauren E., and Laura M. Maruschak. "Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children." Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2016. https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/pptmcspi16st.pdf.
[note 11] McCampbell, Susan W. “Gender-Responsive Strategies for Women Offenders.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections. 2005.
[note 12] Greenfeld, Lawrence A., and Tracy L. Snell. “Women Offenders.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1999. https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/wo.pdf.
[note 13] Blanchette and Brown, The Assessment and Treatment of Women Offenders; Fattore, Liana, Miriam Melis, Paola Fadda, and Walter Fratta. "Sex Differences in Addictive Disorders." Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 35, no. 3 (2014): 272-284. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.04.003; Hall, Elizabeth A., Michael L. Prendergast, Jean Wellisch, Meredith Patten, and Yan Cao. "Treating Drug-Abusing Women Prisoners: An Outcomes Evaluation of the Forever Free Program." The Prison Journal 84, no. 1 (2004): 81-105. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032885503262456; Richie, Beth. Compelled to Crime: The Gender Entrapment of Battered, Black Women. (New York, NY: Routledge, 2018).
[note 14] Ashley, Olivia Silber, Mary Ellen Marsden, and Thomas M. Brady. "Effectiveness of Substance Abuse Treatment Programming for Women: A Review." The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 29, no. 1 (2003): 19-53. https://psycnet.apa.org/ doi/10.1081/ADA-120018838; Cobbina, “Reintegration Success and Failure”; Langan, Neal P., and Bernadette M. M. Pelissier. "Gender Differences Among Prisoners in Drug Treatment." Journal of Substance Abuse 13, no. 3 (2001): 291-301. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/S0899-3289(01)00083-9; Van Wormer, Katherine Stuart, and Clemens Bartollas. Women and the Criminal Justice System: Gender, Race, and Class. (New York, NY: Routledge, 2021).
[note 15] American Correctional Association. The Female Offender: What Does the Future Hold? (Alexandria, VA: American Correctional Association, 1990); Browne, Angela, Brenda Miller, and Eugene Maguin. "Prevalence and Severity of Lifetime Physical and Sexual Victimization Among Incarcerated Women." International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 22, no. 3-4 (1999): 301-322. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/S0160-2527(99)00011-4; Snell, Tracy L. and Danielle C. Morton. “Women in Prison.” U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1994. https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/WOPRIS.PDF; Tripodi, Stephen J., and Carrie Pettus-Davis. "Histories of Childhood Victimization and Subsequent Mental Health Problems, Substance Use, and Sexual Victimization for a Sample of Incarcerated Women in the US." International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 36, no. 1 (2013): 30-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2012.11.005.
[note 16] Blanchette and Brown, The Assessment and Treatment of Women Offenders; Bloom, Owen, and Covington, “Women Offenders”; Haywood, Kravitz, Goldman, and Freeman, “Characteristics of Women in Jail”; Messina, Nena, William Burdon, Garo Hagopian, and Michael Prendergast. "Predictors of Prison-Based Treatment Outcomes: A Comparison of Men and Women Participants." The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 32, no. 1 (2006): 7-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/00952990500328463; Smith, Paula, and Sarah M. Manchak. "A Gendered Theory of Offender Rehabilitation" in Sisters in Crime Revisited: Bringing Gender into Criminology, eds. Francis T. Cullen, Pamela Wilcox, Jennifer L. Lux, and Cheryl Lero Jonson (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2015), 371-395; Van Voorhis, Patricia, and Lois Presser. Classification of Women Offenders: A National Assessment of Current Practices. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections, 2001.
[note 17] Cobbina, “Reintegration Success and Failure”; Garcia, Marie, and Nancy Ritter. "Improving Access to Services for Female Offenders Returning to the Community." NIJ Journal 269, March 2012. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/237725.pdf; Langan and Pelissier, “Gender Differences in Drug Treatment”; La Vigne, Brooks, and Shollenberger, "Women on the Outside”; McClellan, Dorothy S., David Farabee, and Ben M. Crouch. "Early Victimization, Drug Use, and Criminality: A Comparison of Male and Female Prisoners." Criminal Justice and Behavior 24, no. 4 (1997): 455-476. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/0093854897024004004; Raeder, Myrna R. "A Primer on Gender-Related Issues That Affect Female Offenders." Criminal Justice 20 (2005): 4-23; Scott, Christy K., Michael L. Dennis, and Arthur J. Lurigio. "Comorbidity Among Female Detainees in Drug Treatment: An Exploration of Internalizing and Externalizing Disorders." Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 38, no. 1 (2015): 35-44. https://doi.org/10.1037/prj0000134; Visher and Bakken, “Reentry Challenges Facing Women with Mental Health Problems.”
[note 18] Ashley, Marsden, and Brady, “Substance Abuse Treatment Programming for Women”; Blanchette and Brown, The Assessment and Treatment of Women Offenders; Bloom, Owen, and Covington, “Women Offenders”; Fretz, Ralph, Jacey Erickson, and Angela Mims. "Reentry Programming and Female Offenders: The Case for a Gender-Responsive Approach." Journal of Community Corrections 16, no. 3 (2007): 9-21; Stuart, Olivia, and Evelyn F. McCoy. "Gender-Responsive Programming in Women's Prisons." Washington, DC: The Urban Institute, Justice Policy Center, 2023; Pelissier, Bernadette, and Nicole Jones. "Differences in Motivation, Coping Style, and Self-Efficacy Among Incarcerated Male and Female Drug Users." Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 30, no. 2 (2006): 113-120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2005.10.006; Pelissier, Bernadette, Mark Motivans, and Jennifer L. Rounds-Bryant. "Substance Abuse Treatment Outcomes: A Multi-Site Study of Male and Female Prison Programs." Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 41, no. 2 (2005): 57-80. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1300/J076v41n02_04.
[note 19] Ashley, Marsden, and Brady, “Substance Abuse Treatment Programming for Women”; Pelissier and Jones, “Differences in Motivation, Coping Style, and Self-Efficacy”; Pelissier, Motivans, and Rounds-Bryant, “Substance Abuse Treatment Outcomes.”
[note 20] Fretz, Erickson, and Mims, “Reentry Programming and Female Offenders.”
[note 21] CrimeSolutions (CrimeSolutions.ojp.gov) helps practitioners and policymakers understand what works in justice-related programs and practices and make practical decisions on program selection and implementation by gathering information on programs and practices and reviewing evaluation and meta-analysis research against standard criteria. Programs that are not designed for reentry, per se, but are rather single approach rehabilitative initiatives are not included, nor are reentry programs targeting males or juveniles. In the table, a reentry program or practice is conceived as a system of continuous care that begins in custody and continues following release. Considerably fewer programs and practices meet these criteria than are listed under a general search for “reentry” on CrimeSolutions. Further, the table only includes those programs rated promising; there were no programs that met the criteria for inclusion that were rated effective.
[note 22] Sugie, Naomi F., and Kristin Turney. "Beyond Incarceration: Criminal Justice Contact and Mental Health." American Sociological Review 82, no. 4 (2017): 719-743. https:// doi.org/10.1177/0003122417713188; Visher and Bakken, “Reentry Challenges Facing Women with Mental Health Problems.”
[note 23] Edwards, Layla, Sacha Kendall Jamieson, Julia Bowman, Sungwon Chang, Josie Newton, and Elizabeth Sullivan. "A Systematic Review of Post-Release Programs for Women Exiting Prison with Substance-Use Disorders: Assessing Current Programs and Weighing the Evidence." Health & Justice 10 (2022): 1-32. https://healthandjusticejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40352-021-00162-6.
[note 24] Knight, Danica, Jennifer Becan, David Olson, Noah Painter Davis, Justin Jones, Amanda Wiese, Pam Carey, Dona Howell, and Kevin Knight. "Justice Community Opioid Innovation Network (JCOIN): The TCU Research Hub." Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 128 (2021): 108290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2021.108290; Miller, Holly Ventura, and J. Mitchell Miller. "Community In-Reach Through Jail Reentry: Findings from a Quasi- Experimental Design." Justice Quarterly 27, no. 6 (2010): 893-910. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2010.482537.
[note 25] Scott, Christy K., and Michael L. Dennis. "The First 90 Days Following Release from Jail: Findings from the Recovery Management Checkups for Women Offenders (RMCWO) Experiment." Drug and Alcohol Dependence 125, no. 1-2 (2012): 110-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.03.025 .
[note 26] Covington, Stephanie S., and Barbara E. Bloom. "Gendered Justice: Women in the Criminal Justice System." In Gendered Justice: Addressing Female Offenders, ed. Barbara E. Bloom (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2003): 3-23; Sheppard, Monica, Lama Hassoun Ayoub, & Ada Pecos Melton. “Assessing and Enhancing Cultural Responsiveness in Reentry Programs Through Research and Evaluation.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Assistance, 2021.
